UNIT 9 IMOTIVATION* Structure 9.1 Objectives 9.2 Introduction 9.3 Defining Motivation 9.4 Types of Motivation 9.5 Theories of Motivation 9.6 Enhancing Individual Potential through Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 9.7 Self-regulation 9.8 Selfenhancement 9.9 Let Us Sum Up 9.10 Key Words 9.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions 9.12 Unit End Questions 9.13 References 9.14 Suggested Readings 9.1OBJECTIVES PEOPLE'S After reading the Unit, you will be able to : define motivation; UNIVERSITY describe the types ofmotivation; discuss the theories ofmotivation; discuss the ways of enhancing individual potential through intrinsic and extrinsic motivation; and elucidate the concepts of self-regulation and self enhancement. 9.2INTRODUCTION Mahima was taking part in 100 meters marathon in her college. But as she started running there was a cramp in her left leg. But despite of the pain and discomfort, she managed to finish the race and secure the first prize. What do you think might have made Mahima continue in the race and perform to her best? Sania's brother was getting married the next day and despite of being preoccupied with the marriage preparations, she ensured that the report that she had to submit to her Manager was prepared and submitted as per the time given to her, What do you think prompted Sania to prepare the report and submit it in time? * Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New ---PAGE END--- Motivation and In the above examples, the main question that arises is why did the individuals (Mahima Creativity and Sania) behave the way they did. What was the driving force behind their behaviour? In our day-to-day life, you might have come across such behaviours, where you may have wondered why certain individuals behaved the way they did. From getting something to eat to helping a person injured in an accident, to completing work in time, one of the significant factors that can play a role is motivation. As certain behaviours may be displayed due to the factor ofmotivation, it is also possible that an individual may not behave in certain ways because of lack of motivation. For example, a student may not do well in his/ her examination because he/ she never felt motivated enough, intrinsically or extrinsically (these terms will be discussed in detail later in this Unit) or an individual may not perform to his/ her best at work place due to lack of motivation. Thus motivation answers the "why' ofhuman behaviour. It is a key factor that determines human behaviour and thus it is important that as students ofpsychology, you understand this term in a better way. In the present Unit we will define motivation and describe the types ofmotivation. Further, we will discuss the various theories of motivation explaining the nature ofmotivation. You will also learn about the concepts of self regulation and self enhancement, and different ways of enhancing individual potential through intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. 9.3DEFINING MOTIVATION Motivation has been mainly termed as a factor that drives or pushes one in a certain direction or to behave in a certain way. Motivation can be termed as a driving force or it can also be stated as a process that starts and drives various activities, whether physical or psychological (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2006). The term motivation has been derived from a Latin word 'movere', which means to move'. It can thus be described in terms of drive, force, desires, needs and wishes that may lead to individuals behaving in a certain manner. A desire to get praise from the teacher may motivate a student to perform well in a class activity. A wish to gain more knowledge about a certain subject may motivate an individual to take up an educational programme in that subject. A hunger drive may prompt an individual to buy biscuits or snacks. A desire to spend time with his/ her parents, may encourage a person to travel long distance. Thus any human behaviour can be said to be as a result of some kind of motivation. The term motivation has been defined in various ways as you can see below: Feldman (2015, p. 287) defined motivation as "the factors that direct and energize the behaviour of humans and other organisms". Feist and Rosenberg (2015, p. 397) define motivation as "the urge to move towards one's goals, to accomplish tasks". Chamorro- Premuzic (2015, p. 272) defined motivation as "an internal state, dynamic rather than static in nature, that propels action, directs behaviour and is oriented toward satisfying both instincts and cultural needs and goals ". Quick, Nelson and Khandelwal (2013, p. 172) defined motivation as "the process of arousing and sustaining goal directed behaviour". Nolen-Hoeksema et al (2009, p. 419) describe motivation as "a condition that energizes behaviour and givesit direction". Morgan et al (1993, p. 268) define motivation as "the driving and pulling forces ---PAGE END--- Petri (1996) defines motivation as "the process by which activities are started, directed Motivation and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met ". Analyzing the above definitions,we can say that motivation is an internal force that drives people into some action or behaviour. It is a process having a goal-directed orientation. It is dynamic in nature which energizes the person to pursue a goal. In the context ofmotivation the three main terms that need to be discussed are needs, drives and incentives that contribute to motivation. Needs: These are related to the biological states of cellular or bodily deficiencies that lead to drives. For example, individuals need water, food and of course oxygen to survive (Feist & Rosenberg, 2015).These are the biological needs, the needs related to the body. We also have cognitive needs and social needs. Cognitive needs include such needs as need for achievement and curiosity. Social needs arise from social situation/ context and include need to conform, cooperate and compete. Drives: Feist & Rosenberg (2015, p. 397) define drives as the perceived states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need, creating an urge to relieve the tension". As we discussed under need, a need leads to or compels drive. Thus when an individual is hungry he/ she will seek food. Thus the need leads to drive and makes the individual to behave in such a way that the deficiency created is dealt with. Incentives: This is external or is from the environment (as opposed to drive that are internal) and plays a role in motivating behaviours. It could be an object or an event. A trophy won in a game can be termed as an incentive to do well in that game. After knowing the meaning ofmotivation, now let us see the types ofmotivation. Human behaviour is caused by various motives some ofwhich may be basic such as food, and OPLE'S some may be influenced by social factors. Further, some may arise from within the individual, the internal psychological factors. Let us discuss these various types ofmotives in the section below. /ERSITY 9.4 TYPES OF MOTIVATION Motivation can be broadly oftwo types, which are discussed as follows: 1) Primary and Secondary Motivation: Primary motivation can also be termed as basic motivation and mainly includes the needs related to hunger, thirst, sleep, sex, avoidance of pain and so on. These mainly influence an individual's behaviour at a basic level and these needs are also related to the basic need for preservation of self. Secondary motivation can be termed as learned motivation and these may differ from individual to individual. They are also related to the priorities and values of the individual. You will learn more about this under drive reduction theory in section 9.5. 2) Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation: This is yet another way in which motivation can be categorized. Extrinsic motivation can be defined as "motivation that comes from outside the person and usually involves rewards and praises" (Feist & Rosenberg, 2015, p. 415). The examples ofextrinsic motivation are reward, praise, money, feedback and so on. Thus it consists of something outside the individual. Such motivators provide satisfaction/ pleasure that the activities/ tasks may not provide. Thus these motivators get the individual to do something that they may not do otherwise. ---PAGE END--- Motivation and Extrinsic motivation has a number of advantages as it is not only linked with the increase Creativity in behaviour but also with increase in performance. However, it also has limitation in the sense that, if, for instance, the reward is removed, then the behaviour may also decrease. And at the same time if the reward remains the same and is not increased, the motivation will also decrease. Further, extrinsic motivation may be effective with simpler tasks as opposed to tasks that require creative and lateral thinking. Moreover, it may also affect the intrinsic motivation of the person in carrying out the task. For example, if a child enjoys keeping his/ her room organized and tidy, but if parents start providing reward for the same, the child will keep the room tidy not because of the intrinsic motivation, that is the enjoyment, but will do so because of the reward given by the parents. To take yet another example, if an employee adequately uses safety devices because he/ she is intrinsically motivated to do so and ifhis/ her supervisor provides him/ her with extrinsic motivators for use of the safety devices, the employee will start using the safety devices due to the extrinsic motivation and not due to the intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation can be defined as "motivation that comes from within a person and includes the elements of challenge, enjoyment, mastery and autonomy" (Feist & Rosenberg, 2015, p. 416). For example, there could be an activity that an individual enjoys doing. There are four components of intrinsic motivation (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015) as given below. Challenge: It relates to the extent to which an individual enjoys the excitement that accompanies a new challenge. Enjoyment: It relates to the pleasure that an individual may obtain from carrying out the task. Mastery:It relates to the sense ofpride and accomplishment that an individual may experience when he/ she carries out a difficult task. Autonomy and self determination:It relates to the autonomy that an individual enjoys while carrying out the task, that is, the freedom with which the individual can determine what is to be done and how is it to be done. Intrinsic motivation plays an important role in enhancing the productivity as well as creativity in the individuals. Self Assessment Questions I 1) Define motivation. 2) What is intrinsic motivation? ---PAGE END--- 9.5 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Motivation Let us now discuss the various theories of motivation which help to explain how does motivation function and operate to influence our behaviour and actions. 1)Drive Reduction Theory: The drive theory focuses on needs and drives which we have discussed earlier. It is also called as the push theory ofmotivation as "the behaviour is pushed towards goals by driving force within the person or animal"' (Morgan et al, 1996, p. 269). Drive reduction theorystates that "lack of some basic biological need produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need" (Feldman, 2015 p. 288). You learned about drive earlier in this Unit which can be explained as a tension or arousal that channelizes behaviour to fulfill a need. Drives can be of two types, primary and secondary. The examples of primary drives are thirst, hunger, sleep and sex that are mainlyrelated to the physiological needs of an individual. Secondary drives are acquired drives arising from previous experience and learning, e.g., need for achievement in one's field ofwork. Thus, this secondary drive will then channelize the work related behaviour of the person. An important concept in the Drive theory is homeostasis, which can be explained as "the process by which all organisms work to maintain physiological equilibrium or balance around an optimal set point" (Feist & Rosenberg, 2015, p. 398). It can also be explained as the tendency of the body to maintain an internal state that is balanced or steady (Feldman, 2015). Thus whenever there is any deviation from the ideal state or the set point, then the adjustments will be made by the body to reestablish the balanced state or achieve the set point, thus restoring the balance. For example, when you are thirsty, there is lack ofhomeostasis and your primary drive is thirst. So, you want to restore the balance and take the action to go and OPLE'S drink water. Drive reduction theory adequately explains how behaviours are channelised by primary drives; however, it does not adequately explain all human motivations, RSITY e.g., arousal-seeking behaviour. It may not help in explaining behaviour of an adolescent who enjoys a roller coaster ride or rides his/ her bike in full speed. Thus such behaviour that is thrilling and behaviour related to curiosity cannot be explained with the help of this theory. 2) The Optimal Arousal Theory:You could see above that the drive reduction theory cannot be applied to explain behaviours related to curiosity or thrill-seeking behaviours. In such cases the optimal arousal theory can help us to explain this need for stimulation. The theory states that when the arousal level is optimal, people perform better and function well. This theory is based on the work carried out by Yerkes and Dodson in 1908, referred to as the Yerkes- Dodson law (Feist & Rosenberg, 2015). It explains the relationship between arousal level and task performance (see Fig. 9aF) in the following way: "we function best when we are moderately aroused or energized and both low and high arousal/ energy levels lead to poor performance" (Feist & Rosenberg, 2015, p. 399). ---PAGE END--- Motivation and Creativity High Low Low Arousal High Figure 9aF : The Yerkes- Dodson Law As you see in the above Figure, when the arousal is low or high, the performance is also low; however, performance is high when there is an optimal level of arousal. Thus it can be said that individuals are motivated when certain situation is not very high or low in stimulation. There are two things that we need to take note of in the context of the Yerkes Dodson law. individual differences in the arousal level b)d difficulty level of the task DCD First, when we talk of an optimal arousal level leading to better functioning performance, it needs to be noted that this optimal level may vary from person to person. Thus there is no fixed optimal arousal, but it is individual-specific. The second thing is that the task difficulty level moderates the relationship between arousal and task performance. As the Yerkes-Dodson law states, in case of simpler tasks, a relatively higher arousal level is required for better performance; and with difficult tasks, a relatively lower arousal is needed for better performance. 3) Incentive Theories: These can also be described as "pull' theories (Morgan et al, 1996). These theories state that the motivation is as a result of desire to achieve external rewards or incentives. For example, a chocolate could serve as an incentive for a child to do his/ her homework in time, even though he/ she may not actually be hungry .Thus incentive theories explain behaviour in terms of external stimuli having rewarding value. Thus it can be said that both, the drive reduction model and the incentive theories are relevant and can be considered together to explain what motivates certain behaviours. For example, when hungry, an individual will seek food (drive reduction model), however, he/ she will seek food that seems to be more appetizing or appealing. However, incentive theories cannot explain all human motivation such as when an individual engages in some behaviour even when there is no incentive. ---PAGE END--- 4) Cognitive Approaches to Motivation: This approach states that "motivation is Motivation a result of people's thoughts, beliefs, expectations and goals' (Feldman, 2015 p. 289). Thus, a student will be motivated to study for examination based on his/ her expectation whether studying will lead to obtaining good marks in examination. This theory also helps differentiate between the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation that were discussed in detail under types of motivation. Individuals are more likely to work on a certain task or towards achieving a certain goal when they are intrinsically motivated as opposed to extrinsically motivated. And it may so happen that attempts to increase extrinsic motivation may lead to decrease in intrinsic motivation (Feldman, 2015). 5) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow's hierarchy ofneeds (Fig. 9bF) presents the needs in a hierarchical order in the form ofa pyramid. It proposes basic needs at the lower end moving up to the higher needs. The basic needs are to be fulflled before the higher order needs are met. Self Actualisation Esteem needs Love & Belongingness Needs PEOPLE'S Safety and Security Needs Physiological Needs XERSITY Figure 9bF: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1954) As we see in the above Figure, the basic needs are the physiological needs (related to the primary drive), namely need for food, water, sleep and sex. This is also called the deficiency needs' or D-needs. Physiological needs are followed by the safety needs that are related to the need for an environment that keeps us safe and secure. These two needs can be termed as lower order needs and once these are fulfilled, then the individual will move on to the other higher order needs, also called the "growth needs'. The physiological and safety needs are followed by the need for love and belongingness, that is related to the give and take of love and affection. Next comes the esteem needs, that are related to the need for development of a sense of selfworth. The highest need is that of self actualization, that is related to the need for realization of one's full potential (Feist & Rosenberg, 2015) or can also be termed as a state of self fulfillment (Feldman, 2015). Maslow, later on, has added a new level of needs higher than self actualization, i.e., transcendence needs, which refers to finding spiritual meaning in life (Maslow, 1996). ---PAGE END--- Motivation and Maslow's theory has been criticized on two grounds: (i) these needs are not universal Creativity as suggested by Maslow. Cultural variations in the importance ofneeds may influence this and; (ii)These needs may not occur in the same hierarchical order. We have many instances where great scientists or reformers or artists have engaged in the higher needs of self actualization even if their lower needs ofhunger has not been met. 6) Alderfer's ERG theory: The Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory by Alderfer is similar to the theory proposed by Maslow; however, the theory highlights only three levels in place of five levels. At the lowest level ofthe hierarchy is the existence needs and as the name suggests these are basic needs related to the physiological needs and the safety needs. The next is the relatedness needs that are related to social relationships. The last level is that ofgrowth needs and these are related to the need to achieve one's potential, develop competence and so on. The growth needs are similar to the self-actualization needs proposed by Maslow. 7) IHerzberg's Two Factor Theory: This theory mainly focuses on two main factors that is hygiene factor and motivational factor. It states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from these two factors. Herzberg says that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not two ends in the same continuum, but they are two separate factors. Thus the opposite of satisfaction is "no satisfaction' (not dissatisfaction') and the opposite of dissatisfaction is 'no dissatisfaction' (not 'satisfaction'). This theorymainly finds its application in work set up in the context ofjob performance and job satisfaction. The hygiene factors are the basic factors such as good working condition, cooperative colleagues, optimum workload etc. that need to be present in the work set up so that there is less dissatisfaction. However, going beyond the hygiene factors or no dissatisfaction, there need to be motivators so that the person derives satisfaction from his/her job. In other words, hygiene factors ensure that the person is not dissatisfied. And the motivational factors ensure that the person is satisfied in his job. The hygiene factors and motivational factors are given in the Table 9aT below. Table 9aT: Hygiene and Motivational factors Hygiene factors Motivational factors - Adequate working conditions High salary and bonuses - Proper workload Achievement/ promotion -- Good salary Recognition - Good relationship with Responsibility supervisor, peers and Advancement and growth subordinates -- Security The hygiene factors determine the level of dissatisfaction and if these needs are taken care of then the dissatisfaction will be low in the individual. However, this will not contribute to satisfaction in the individual and the motivational factors are required to ensure that the individual experiences satisfaction. However, there may not be always such a scenario. In the absence ofhygiene factors, e.g., poor job conditions ofa soldier, still he is motivated to serve for the country. Also, good hygiene factors may not motivate ---PAGE END--- the person to do well. In other words, it is crucial to ensure both good working conditions Motivation as well as motivating factors to ensure good job performance and satisfaction in the job. 8) McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory: This theory was developed by David McClelland and it highlights the three psychologicalneeds: achievement, affiliation and power. Need for Achievement (nAch) refers to the need to achieve or excel. It is characterized by a strong need to master skills and achieve success. They Want to take up challenges, compete, overcome obstacles and difficulties. Need for Affiliation (nAff) refers to the need to relate with others. They want to form close and intimate relationship with others. Such people are very social and liked by others. They can function very well in a team and collaborative set up. Need for Power (nPow) relates to the need to have an influence, impact and controlothers. People having high need for power want status and positions to be called as influential in material terms, e.g., they may wear expensive clothes or jewellery etc. The above theories thus explain the nature ofmotivation and help us further understand the concept of motivation Self Assessment Questions II 1)Explain the drive reduction theory ofmotivation. OPLE'S 2) List the needs as explained by Maslow. RSITY 9.6 ENHANCINGINDIVIDUAL POTENTIAL THROUGH INTRINSICAND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION Under types of motivation we discussed about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. But it is also important to understand how to enhance an individual's potential or how to motivate the individual to do his/ her best with the help of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. This has relevance not only in our day-to-day life but also for students in schools and employees at workplace etc. Various techniques can be used to motivate individuals intrinsically and extrinsically. Let us first focus on intrinsic motivation. In order to intrinsically motivate the individual, we will need to focus on its components that we discussed earlier, that is, challenge, enjoyment, mastery and autonomy and self determination. The techniques employed to intrinsically motivate individuals will necessarily depend on these basic components. ---PAGE END--- Motivation and Some of the ways in which individuals can be intrinsically motivated are discussed as Creativity follows: Ways to increase the intrinsic motivation: 1) Creating challenges: In order to intrinsically motivate individuals, they need to be challenged or need to be involved in challenging activities or are given goals that are challenging. Also while creating these challenges, it can be ensured that the activity or the goal assigned has some personal meaning to the individual. Further, these goals or activities need to be challenging enough to display an uncertainty, where achieving the goal or completing the activity is possible but not absolutely certain. Feedback based on performance may also play an important role here, as feedback will help the individual understand his/ her standing in the face of the challenge. In school set up or at work place, the students and employees can be given challenging tasks in order to elicit their intrinsic motivation. Providing autonomy: Autonomy was discussed as one of the components of intrinsic motivation. Individuals need to be provided with autonomy while assigning activities, tasks or goals, so that they are intrinsically motivated to do their best. We all want to feel in control of our own self and our surrounding. In a work set up, when individuals are provided with certain goals, they also need to be given certain autonomy or control over themselves as well as their surrounding in order to intrinsically motivate them to enhance their potential and motivate them to complete the activity. Such an autonomy can be created when the individuals perceive a relationship (cause and effect) between the efforts put in by them and the desired results. Further, the effect or the result also needs to be worth the effort. Also the individuals are better intrinsically motivated when they feel that the activity that they are carrying out is not because they are forced to do it but because they want to. 3) Eliciting curiosity: Curiosity occurs when something in one's surrounding catches one's attention and the individual wants to know more about it. Curiosity can be of two types, sensory curiosity and cognitive curiosity. Sensory curiosity is elicited when an individual finds something in his/ her surrounding that catches his/ her attention. It could be a sound, or an object and so on. Cognitive curiosity is elicited when an individual feels a need to learn more or gather more knowledge about the activity, object or event. A colourfulmodel or exhibit in a classroom can elicit such curiosity amongst the students and can motivate them intrinsically to learn more about it. 4) Cooperation: When an individual is given an opportunity to cooperate with other individual/s there is a possibility that his/ her intrinsic motivation will increase. Cooperation with others leads to feelings of satisfaction in the individual that enhances intrinsic motivation. 5)(Competition: Similar to cooperation, even competition with other individual/s can lead to increase in intrinsic motivation. Competition provides an opportunity to the individual to compare one's own performance with other individuals and that can in turn lead to increase in intrinsic competition. 6) Working towards a greater good or higher purpose: When an individual feels that he/ she is working for a greater good or higher purpose, then this will also serve as an intrinsic motivator and will enhance the individuals potential to perform With regard to extrinsic motivation, the reinforcements need to be linked to the activity or performance. Extrinsic motivators can help generate interest in an activity and also help individuals that lack basic skills for carrying out certain activity. ---PAGE END--- Some of the ways in which individuals can be extrinsically motivated are discussed Motivation as follows: Ways to increase the extrinsic motivation: 1) Recognition: Recognition is one of the important factors that can lead to increase in extrinsic motivation in an individual. For example, an employee can be motivated to perform better when he/ she is extrinsically motivated with the help of recognition. Recognition may also lead to increase in satisfaction that the individual will derive by carrying out his/her work related activities.Though one needs to ensure that the recognition is genuine as well as sincere for it to be effective. Rewards and incentives: This is another factor that can lead to increase in motivation. Rewards and incentives can be financial reward or non-financial reward. An example of financial rewards would be an amount that is given to the employee for following safety norms in an industry. Whereas, a non-financial reward could be praise or even attention. 3) Punishment: Similar to rewards, punishment can also lead to an individual being motivated. Fear of being penalized may lead to following of safety behaviour by the individual. A student will prepare his/ her homework in time in order to avoid any punishment from his/ her teacher. 4 External pressure: Pressure from significant others in one's lives like parents, superiors and so on can also serve as an extrinsic motivator. In this context, over-justification effect can also be discussed, where extrinsic motivation leads to interference with intrinsic motivation, that is, intrinsic motivation may decrease due to excessive extrinsic motivation. This takes place because as individuals analyze what motivates them, they assign more significance to external reinforcements rather than their intrinsic motivation or it can also be because the activity that was otherwise OPLE'S performed by them with interest, now feels like an obligation to achieve external reinforcement. Self Assessment Questions III RSITY 1) List the ways in which individuals can be intrinsically and extrinsically motivated. Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation ---PAGE END--- Motivation and 9.7 SELF-REGULATION Creativity Selfregulation in simple terms can be described as control that one has over oneself. Self regulation was explained by Bandura, 1991 (as cited in Ackerman, 2018) as "a continuous and active process that involves monitoring one's own behaviour, its influences and consequences, evaluating one's behaviour in comparison with one's own values and standards as well as situational norms and then reacting to one's own behaviour in terms ofhow one thinks and feels". It can also be described as "capacity to control one's thoughts, feelings and behaviour" (Barrett, 2017, page 141). Self regulation can be emotional or behavioural. Emotional self regulation denotes regulation of one's emotions, whereas behavioural selfregulation denotes behaviour that will benefit the individual in long term and is consistent with one's values (Stonsny, 2011 as cited in Ackerman, 2018). Selfregulation is an important aspect in human beings that enables them to sustain in the complex environment that they live in. It not only helps individuals to be flexible and adjust to varied situations and their demands but it also helps them deal with the selfish impulses with the help of their social conscience (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Selfregulation develops during childhood and it is an important skill for children to develop emotional maturity as well as to maintain social relationship. As such self regulation can be described as the factor coming in between feeling and action, where an individual takes time to think about the situation that he/ she is facing and then accordingly takes an action. For instance, an individual may face a situation where she may feel uncomfortable, but she may regulate her actions to deal effectively with the situation and the uncomfortable feeling. Thus selfregulation can act as one of the ways to increase one's motivation and enhance one's potential. Lack of adequate selfregulation has been linked to various problems like alcoholism, dependence on drugs, obesity, decreased academic achievement, financial problems, criminal behaviour, eating disorders, lack of control over anger, poor physical health and so on (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008; Barrett, 2017). Individuals who are able to adequately selfregulate often do well on the job, have effective relationships and often do well in varied dimensions oftheir lives (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). As stated by Baumeister & Bushman (2008), the following are the components of effective selfregulation: Standards: Standards "denote ideas or concept (including ideals, norms, expectations, moral principles, laws) about how the things could be" (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008, page 127). Any individual grows in the context of these standards and thus one knows what is a good behaviour and what is a bad behaviour and so on. Thus standards play an important role in shaping ones behaviour. Individuals will often compare themselves to these standards and modify their behaviours based on these standards. Monitoring: This can be termed as evaluation of the behaviour or keeping an eye on the behaviour that one wants to control or regulate. Self awareness also plays an important role over here as one needs to be aware about one's own self and one's behaviour in order to regulate it. In this context the control theory of self regulation can also be discussed which states that selfregulation involves four phases, namely, test phase, operate phase, test phase and exit phase (Shetgovekar, 2018). In test phase the individual will compare his/ her own self with either public ---PAGE END--- or private standard. In operate phase, if the individual feels that his/ her behaviour Motivation is not consistent with the standard, the behaviour is modified to meet the standards, in test phase. During the second test phase, there is a retest, i.e.,the individual again compares his/ her behaviour with the standard and lastly in the exit phase, there is an exit from the loop or vicious circle as the individual feels that his/ her behaviour is consistent with the standard. Strength: Strength also can be explained in terms ofwillpower. Willpower has been termed as an important factor in effective selfregulation. Though there can also be depletion ofwillpower as it is used, individuals can be trained to strengthen their willpower which in turn can lead to effective self regulation. Self regulation can be developed and some of the techniques for self regulation are discussed as follows: 1) Cultivating self awareness and self monitoring: Cultivating self awareness can also help in developing selfregulation as the individuals become more and more aware about their strengths and weaknesses. Along with self awareness, self monitoring also helps in developing selfregulation, as has been discussed earlier. 2) Cognitive reappraisal: This mainly involves modification of thinking pattern. Thus the thinking is modified in such a way that the person experiences positive emotions. For example, if a student obtains less marks in an examination, rather than thinking that she is not good enough, she can think in terms ofputting in more efforts next time. Thus cognitive reappraisal mainly focuses on reframing our negative thoughts and have a positive outlook towards the situation. 3) Mindfulness: Mindfulness can be described as an ability to be self aware as well as being present about where one is, what he/ she is doing and not being overly OPLE'S reactive or get engulfed by what is happening around oneself(Mindful Staff, 2014). The breathing exercises in mindfulness help in managing emotions and negative feelings and thus helps in selfregulation. 4) Positive attitude: Developing a positive attitude towards situations, events, people RSITY and objects can also help us in developing better self regulation. 5) Stress management: Effective management of stress can also help in self regulation. When an individual is able to manage stress, she will feel in better controlofher self, thoughts and feelings. Thus various stress management techniques including relaxation techniques, exercises, cognitive behaviour techniques etc. can be effectively used to manage stress. 6) Time management: Besides stress management, time management techniques may also help in self regulation, Techniques like setting priorities, having a planner, having clear goals and so on can help manage time effectively. Self Assessment Questions IV 1) What is self regulation? ---PAGE END--- Motivation and 2) Name the three components of effective self regulation. Creativity 9.8 SELF ENHANCEMENT Self enhancement can be described as "the tendency to describe and present oneself using positive or socially valued attributes, such as kind, understanding, intelligent and industrious" (Larsen, Buss & Deuskar, 2014, P. 499). In the context of motivation, one can discuss about the self enhancement motive, that can be defined as "the desire to learn favourable or flattering things about the self ' (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008, page 87). This motive may lead individuals to turn a blind eye towards criticisms and exaggerate their positive attributes. Selfenhancement can also be described as an activity that is cognitive as well as interpersonal in nature with a goal to achieving enhanced image about one's self. There are severalrelated terms such as self improvement, self assessment, selfverification and self protection. Let us differentiate selfenhancement from these. Self improvement can be explained as a motive to make oneself better, whereas self enhancement can be explained as a motive that is focused on perception that one is better, which may or may not be compatible with reality. Self assessment can be described as a motive that focuses on securing a precise perspective about oneself that can be positive or negative, whereas self enhancement mainly focuses on having a positive perspective about oneself. Yet another term that can be compared with self enhancement is self verification, that is verifying notions that an individual held about himself/ herselfpreviously that can be positive or negative. However, in self enhancemnt the positive notions are confirmed, whereas negative ones are not. It is important for the individual to have a positive feeling about one self and thus an individualmay involve in numerous strategies related to evaluation and enhancement of one's self. Self enhancement thus can be related with self protection motive where individuals involve in creating a positive self image in order to protect one's self. Thus an individual will modify his/ her behaviour based on whether it is appreciated or not by people around, especially the significant people in his/ her life. In this context the theory of Social Comparison Processes can be discussed.This theory was proposed by Festinger in 1954 and it states thatbehaviours are evaluated by an individual initially by using objective standards, however when such objective standards are not available then subjective standards are used by him/ her (Barrett 2017). Thus social comparison helps provide feedback with regard to one's beliefs and opinions and accordingly an individual can modify his/ her behaviour in order to be appreciated and liked by significant Others in life. Most often social comparisons are carried out with persons who are similar to our selves like family members or friends; however, such comparisons are avoided if they lead to negative self evaluations. This is also supported by the Self Evaluation Maintenance model (SEM) that states generally social comparisons are carried out when there is a likelihood ofit leading to positive self evaluations. The main assumption of this model is that individuals are motivated towards maintaining and enhancing positive evaluations about themselves and this is done by them through reflection and social ---PAGE END--- skills with the sibling who is also a football player. However, if the sibling is a better Motivation football player than him, then he will not involve in any social comparison with the sibling. In such a case in place of social comparison, the individual will involve in reflection, that is the sibling's success is reflected on the individual as he associates with the sibling leading to him experiencing enhanced self esteem. To discuss further about social comparison, individuals engage in social comparison in order to preserve positive image about themselves and this comparison is necessarily based on whether there will be enhancement of self worth or not. Thus social comparison can be categorized into upward social comparison and downward social comparison. In upward social comparison, the individual will compare his own self with an individual who is better than him and in downward social comparison such a comparison is carried out with an individual who is weaker than the individual. Thus in case of upward social comparison a student will compare his performance to that of a student who has secured more marks in an examination. Whereas in case of downward social comparison a person having a two wheeler will compare oneself with a person having no vehicle. Social comparison is also carried by an individual with her own former selves (Barrett, 2017). Thus the person may see how far she has come. For example, a person may compare herself with how she was struggling to get a job a few years ago with the present selfwho is successful at her workplace. Further, individuals may also involve in counterfactual thinking, that is thinking about what possibly could have taken place. As the name suggests, it is -counter to the fact', thinking of alternatives that might have happened instead of what actually has happened. For example, a person receiving a consolation prize in a competition will think that he could have received no prize at all. Such persons will be satisfied to receive at least some prize. But on the other hand a person wining second prize in a competition may also involve in counterfactual thinking and may think that he could have won the first prize and thus he will be unsatisfied andOPLE'S disappointed. There are various techniques that people use to enhance their selves, these are discussed as follows: RSITY 1) Biased Hypothesis testing: The questions that are asked to individuals about themselves are framed in such a way that they enhance positive selfperceptions. For example, a student will frame a question as " Will I get good per centage in examination?" instead of"Will I do badly in examination?" 2) 1 The breadth of categorization: Categorizations are differently used by people to describe their success and failures. For example, an employee securing high rating on performance appraisal will term his achievement as a reflection ofhis/ her hard work and sincerity. Whereas another employee securing a lower rating may term it as due to his/ her falling slightly short of achieving his/ her target. 3) Self serving bias: In self serving bias, an individual will attribute his/ her success to internal factors, whereas, failure is attributed to external factors. 4) Self handicapping: This is yet another technique used to enhance self. In this, one's own performance is deliberately impaired so as to provide an explanation for failure. 5) False consensus effect and false uniqueness: In this the individual believes that his opinion and actions are in sync with those of others. On the other hand, there is also false uniqueness in which individuals hold on to inaccurate beliefs with regard to how their actions and opinions are different (and thus unique) from ---PAGE END--- Motivation and Self Assessment Questions V Creativity ) What is self enhancement? 2)What is upward social comparison? 9.9 LET US SUM UP In this Unit, we learned that motivation can be mainly explained in terms of drive or a factor that channelizes behaviour in a particular direction. Various definitions ofmotivation were discussed in the Unit that mainly describe motivation as force, desires, needs and wishes that may lead to individuals behaving in certain manner. We also discussed related terms such as need (related to the biological states of cellular or bodily deficiencies that lead to drives), drives (a perception of state of tension that occurs when the body feels some kind of deficiency which creates a pressure to relive the tension) and incentives (this is external, from the environment), as opposed to drive that are internal and plays a role in motivating behaviours. The types of motivation were also discussed with a focus on primary and secondary motivation and, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Various theories like drive reduction theory, the optimal arousal theory, incentive theories, cognitive approaches to motivation, the hierarchical model, Alderfer's ERG theory, Herzberg's two factor theory, McClelland's acquired needs theory, were discussed. We further discussed about the concepts of self regulation and self enhancement. Self regulation in simple terms can be described as control that one has over oneself and self enhancement can be described as an activity that is cognitive as well as interpersonal in nature with a goal to achieving enhanced image about one's self. Both these terms were discussed with a focus on their techniques. 9.10 KEY WORDS Motivation : Motivation can be termed as a driving force or it can also be stated as a process that starts and drives various activities, whether physical or psychological Needs These are related to the biological states of cellular or bodily deficiencies that lead to drives. ---PAGE END--- Drives : The perceived states of tension that occur when Motivation our bodies are deficient in some need, creating an urge to relieve the tension. Incentives :This is external or is from the environment (as opposed to drive that are internal) and plays a role in motivating behaviours. Extrinsic motivation : Motivation that comes from outside the person and usually involves rewards and praises can be termed as extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation : Motivation that comes from within a person and includes the elements of challenge, enjoyment, mastery and autonomy is intrinsic motivation Primary motivation : Primary motivation can also be termed as basic motivation and mainly includes the needs related to hunger, thirst, sleep, sex, avoidance of pain and so on. Secondary motivation : Secondary motivation can be termed as learned motivation and these may differ from individual to individual. Self enhancement : Self enhancement can be described as the tendency to describe and present oneselfusing positive or socially valued attributes, such as kind, understanding, intelligent and industrious Self regulation :Self regulation can be described as a continuous OPLE'S and active process that involves monitoring one's own behaviour, its influences and consequences, one's own values and standards as well asevaluating one's behaviour in comparison with RSITY situational norms and then reacting to one's own behaviour in terms ofhow one thinks and feels 9.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Self Assessment Questions I 1) Motivation can be defined in terms of drive, force, desires, needs and wishes that may lead to individuals behaving in certain manner. Feldman defined motivation as "the factors that direct and energise the behaviour of humans and other organisms". 2) Intrinsic motivation can be defined as motivation that comes from within a person and includes the elements of challenge, enjoyment, mastery and autonomy. Self Assessment Questions II Drive reduction model states that lack of some basic biological need produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need ---PAGE END--- Motivation and 2) The needs as explained by Maslow are: Creativity Physiological needs Safety needs Love and belongingness needs Esteem needs Self actualisation Self Assessment Questions III 1) IIntrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be increased in the following ways. Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Creating challenges Recognition Providing autonomy Rewards and incentives Eliciting curiosity Punishment Cooperation External pressure Competition Working towards a greater good or higher purpose Self Assessment Questions IV 1) s Selfregulation can be described as control that one has over oneself. Selfregulation can also be explained as a continuous and active process that involves monitoring one's own behaviour, its influences and consequences, evaluating one's behaviour in comparison with one's own values and standards as well as situational norms and then reacting to one's own behaviour in terms of how one thinks and feels. 2) The three components ofeffective selfregulation are standards, monitoring and strength. VERST Self Assessment Questions V 1) s Selfenhancement can be described as the tendency to describe and present oneself using positive or socially valued attributes, such as kind, understanding, intelligent and industrious In upward social comparison, the individual will compare his/ her own self with an individual who is better than him/her and in downward social comparison such a comparison is carried out with an individual is weaker than the individual. 9.12UNIT END QUESTIONS 1) Define motivation. Discuss the types ofmotivation. 2) Differentiate between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation 3) Describe any two theories of motivation. 4) Discuss various ways of enhancing individual potential through intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. 5) Elucidate the concepts of selfregulation and self enhancement. ---PAGE END--- 9.13 REFERENCES Motivation Ackerman, C (2008). What is self regulation? Retrieved from https:// positivepsychologyprogram.com/self-regulation/ on 24-12-2018 at 9:30 am. Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation.Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50, 248-287. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022- L Barrett, D. W. (2017). Social Psychology: Core components and emerging trends. New Delhi: Sage. Baron, R. A. (2005). Psychology. Delhi: Pearson Education. Baumeister, R. E. and Bushman, B. J. (2008). Fundamentals of Social Psychology. New Delhi: Cengage Learning India Private Limited. Cuncic, A. (2018). How to practice self regulation. Retrieved from https:// www.verywellmind.com/how-you-can-practice-self-regulation-4163536 on 26-12- 2018 at 11:30 am. Eysenck, M. W. (2013). Simply psychology. New York: Psychology Press. Feist, G. J & Rosenberg, E. L. (2015).Psychology: Perspectives and connections. New York: McGraw- Hill Education. Feldman, R. S. (2015). Essentials of understanding Psychology. New York: McGraw- Hill Education. Gerrig, R. J & Zimbardo, P. G. (2006). Psychology and life. Delhi: Pearson Education. Hewstone, M; Fincham, F. D & Foster, J. (2005). Psychology. USA: Blackwell OPLE'S Publishing. Kosslyn, S. M & Rosenberg, R. S. (2013). Introducing Psychology. India: Pearson Education. RSITY Larsen, R. J; Buss, D. M. & Deuskar, M. U. (2014). Personality Psychology. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. Mangal, S. (1984). Abnormal psychology. New Delhi, India: Sterling Publishers. Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper. Maslow, A. H. (1996). Critique ofself-actualization theory. In E. Hoffman (Ed.), Future visions: The unpublished papers of Abraham Maslow. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 26-32. Mindful Staff. (2014). What is Mindfulness? Retrieved from https://www.mindful.org/ what-is-mindfulness/ on 02-01-2019 at 11:00 am. Mishra, B. K. (2016). Psychology: The Study of Human Behaviour. Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited. Morgan, C. T., King, R.A,Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1996). Introduction to Psychology. Delhi: Tata McGraw- Hill Publishing Company Limited. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G., & Lutz, C. (2009). Atkinson & Hilgard's Psychology: An Introduction, United Kingdom: Cengage Learning. ---PAGE END--- Motivation and Parmeswaran, E. G., & Beena, C. (2004). An Invitation to Psychology. Delhi: Creativity Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd. Petri, H. (1996). Motivation: theory, research and application (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Quick, J. C., Nelson, D. L. & Khandelwal, P. (2011). Organisationalbehaviour: A South-Asian perspective. Delhi: Cengage Learning. Rathus, S. (2008). Psychology: Concepts and Connections. United States: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Self Enhancement. Retrieved from https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social- psychology/self/self-enhancement/ on 01-01-2019 at 11:00 am. Shetgovekar, S. (2018). An introduction to social psychology. New Delhi: Sage. Stosny, S. (2011). Self-regulation. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https:// www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/anger-in-the-age-entitlement/201110/self-regulation 9.14 SUGGESTED READINGS Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas. (2015). Personality and individual differences. Chichester: Wiley Ciccarelli, S. K & White, J. N. (2015). Psychology. New York: Pearson Education Limited. Jain. Sashi. (2009). Introduction to psychology. Jalandhar: Kalyani Publishers. Myers, D. G. (2010). Exploring psychology. New York: Worth Publishers. UNIVERSITY ---PAGE END---